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The use of nickel has been traced as far back as 3500 BC, but it was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by , who initially mistook its for a mineral. Its most important ore minerals are laterites, including and , and . Major production sites include in , and in . The metal is corrosion-resistant, finding many uses in alloys, as a plating, in the manufacture of coins, magnets and common household utensils, as a , and in a variety of other applications. Enzymes of certain life-forms contain nickel as an active center, which makes the metal an essential nutrient for those life forms.

Atomic

The electronic configuration of isolated nickel atom is counterintuitive: direct investigation

finds that the predominant electron structure of nickel is [Ar] 4s¹ 3d⁹, which is the more stable form because of . Whereas , which works well for most other elements, predicts an electron shell structure of [Ar] 3d⁸ 4s² (the symbol [Ar] refers to the -like core structure). This latter configuration is found in many chemistry textbooks and is also written as [Ar] 4s² 3d⁸, to emphasize that the 3d shell is the electron shell being filled by the highest-energy electrons.

Physical

Nickel is a silvery-white with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature. Its is 355 °C. That is, nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature.The unit cell of nickel is a with the lattice parameter of 0.352 nm giving an of 0.124 nm. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and .

Isotopes

Main article:

Naturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable ; ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, ⁶¹Ni, ⁶²Ni and ⁶⁴Ni with ⁵⁸Ni being the most abundant (68.077% ). is one of the most stable nuclides of all the existing elements, second in stability only to . 18 have been characterised with the most stable being ⁵⁹Ni with a of 76,000 years, ⁶³Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and ⁵⁶Ni with a half-life of 6.077 days. All of the remaining isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 .

Nickel-56 is produced by the and later set free in large quantities during type Ia . Indeed, the shape of the of these supernovae at intermediate to late-times corresponds to the decay via of nickel-56 to -56 and ultimately to iron-56.Nickel-59 is a long-lived with a half-life of 76,000 years. ⁵⁹Ni has found many applications in . ⁵⁹Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and . Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide , which decays with a half-life of 2.6 million years. Because ⁶⁰Fe has such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of ⁶⁰Ni. Therefore, the abundance of ⁶⁰Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. has the highest per nucleon of any isotope for any element (8.7946 Mev/nucleon). Isotopes heavier than ⁶²Ni cannot be formed by without losing energy. Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known. With 28 and 20 ⁴⁸Ni is "" (like ²⁰⁸) and therefore unusually stable.The isotopes of nickel range in from 48 (⁴⁸Ni) to 78 u (⁷⁸Ni). Nickel-78's half-life was recently measured to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important isotope involved in of elements heavier than iron.

Chemical

See also:

Tetracarbonyl nickel

The most common of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni⁰, Ni⁺, and Ni³⁺ are well known, and Ni⁴⁺ has been demonstrated

Nickel(0)

(Ni(CO)₄), discovered by ,is a volatile liquid at room temperature. On heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide:

Ni(CO)₄ Ni + 4 CO

This behavior is exploited in the for purifying nickel, as described above. The related nickel(0) complex is a useful catalyst in due to the easily displaced .

Nickel(II)

Nickel sulfate crystals

Nickel(II) compounds are known with all common anions, i.e. the sulfide, sulfate, carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and halides. is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid. It exists as both a hexa- and heptahydrates.This compound is useful for nickel.

The four halogens form nickel compounds, all of which adopt octahedral geometries. is of particular significance, and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides. Nickel(II) chloride is produced by dissolving nickel residues in hydrochloric acid. The dichloride is usually encountered as the green hexahydrate, but it can be dehydrated to give the yellow anhydrous NiCl₂. Some tetracoordinate nickel(II) complexes form both tetrahedral and square planar geometries. The tetrahedral complexes are and the square planar complexes are . This equilibrium as well as the formation of octahedral complexes contrasts with the behavior of the divalent complexes of the heavier group 10 metals, palladium(II) and platinum(II), which tend to adopt only square-planar complexes.

is known; it has an electron count of 20, making it relatively unstable.

Nickel(III)

is used as the in many , including , , , and , and used by certain manufacturers in batteries

Creation

The stable form of nickel is created in via the .

History

Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BC. from what is now Syria had contained up to 2% nickel.Further, there are Chinese manuscripts suggesting that "white copper" (, known as baitung) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BC. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822.In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the (Ore Mountains) which resembled copper ore. However, when miners were unable to extract any copper from it they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to ) for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for copper. This ore is now known to be or , a nickel . In 1751, Baron was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel and obtained instead a white metal that he named after the spirit which had given its name to the mineral, nickel.In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy .

In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" was originally applied to the copper-nickel Indian cent coin introduced in 1859. Later, the name designated the three-cent coin introduced in 1865, and the following year the appropriated the designation, which has remained ever since. Coins of pure nickel were first used in 1881 in .After its discovery the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel, but from 1824 on the nickel was obtained as byproduct of production. The first large scale producer of nickel was , which exploited nickel rich from 1848 on. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel and the nickel deposits of , which were discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin, in 1883, in , Russia in 1920 and in the , in 1924 made large-scale production of nickel possible.

Occurrence

See also: and

Widmanstätten pattern showing the two forms of Nickel-Iron, Kamacite and Taenite, in an octahedrite meteorite

The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of deposits. The first are where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous : (Fe, Ni)O(OH) and (a hydrous nickel silicate): (Ni, Mg)₃Si₂O₅(OH). The second are magmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore mineral is : (Ni, Fe)₉S₈.

In terms of supply, the region of , Canada, produces about 30% of the world's supply of nickel. The Sudbury Basin deposit is theorized to have been created by a early in the . Russia contains about 40% of the world's known resources at the Norilsk deposit in . The Russian mining company obtains the nickel and the associated for world distribution. Other major deposits of nickel are found in , France, , , and . Deposits found in tropical areas typically consist of laterites which are produced by the intense weathering of and the resulting secondary concentration of nickel bearing oxide and . Recently, a nickel deposit in western had been exploited, with this location being especially convenient for European smelters, steelmakers and factories. The one locality in the United States where nickel was commercially mined is , where several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits are located. The mine closed in 1987.In 2005, Russia was the largest producer of nickel with about one-fifth world share closely followed by , and , as reported by the .

Based on evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is postulated to be concentrated in the . and are naturally occurring of iron and nickel. For kamacite the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such as or may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite occur in nickel-iron meteorites.

Extraction and purification

Nickel output in 2005

Nickel is recovered through . Most sulfide ores have traditionally been processed using techniques to produce a for further refining. Recent advances in have resulted in recent nickel processing operations being developed using these processes. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a process followed by extraction.

Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional roasting and reduction processes which yield a metal of greater than 75% purity. Final purification of nickel oxides is performed via the , which increases the nickel concentrate to greater than 99.99% purity. This process was patented by L. Mond and was used in South Wales in the 20th century. Nickel is reacted with at around 50 °C to form volatile . Any impurities remain solid while the nickel carbonyl gas passes into a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres, called pellets, are constantly stirred. The decomposes, depositing pure nickel onto the nickel spheres. Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 °C to create fine nickel powder. The resultant carbon monoxide is re-circulated through the process. The highly pure nickel produced by this process is known as carbonyl nickel. A second common form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode. In many applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further purification depending on the composition of the impurities.

Nickel sulfide ores undergo flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then are smelted. After producing the nickel matte, further processing is done via the . First copper is removed by adding , leaving a concentrate of only cobalt and nickel. Solvent extraction then efficiently separates the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel concentration greater than 99%.

Metal value

The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of April 5, 2007, the metal was trading at 52,300 USD/ or 1.47 USD/oz. The price subsequently fell dramatically from these peaks, and as of 19 January 2009 the metal was trading at 10,880 USD/tonne.The contains 0.04 oz (1.25 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, making the metal value over 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the , in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalize the melting and export of cents and nickels.Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.

As of June 24, 2009 the melt value of a U.S. nickel is $0.0363145 which is less than the face value.

Applications

Nickel superalloy jet engine () turbine blade

Nickel is used in many industrial and consumer products, including , magnets, coinage, , electric guitar strings and special alloys. It is also used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in the nickel steels and nickel cast irons, of which there are many varieties. It is also widely used in many other alloys, such as nickel brasses and bronzes, and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold.

Nickel plated on a bracket from a .

The amounts of nickel used for various applications are 60% used for making nickel steels, 14% used in nickel-copper alloys and , 9% used to make malleable nickel, nickel clad, Inconel and other , 6% used in plating, 3% use for nickel cast irons, 3% in heat and electric resistance alloys, such as , 2% used for nickel brasses and bronzes with the remaining 3% of the nickel consumption in all other applications combined.^[ In the laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for , sometimes , a finely divided form of the metal alloyed with which adsorbs gas. Nickel is often used in coins, or occasionally as a substitute for decorative . The is 75% and 25% nickel. The minted at various periods between 1922-81 was 99.9% nickel, and was magnetic.Various other nations have historically used and still use nickel in their coinage.

Nickel is also used in as a collector of , as it is capable of full collection of all 6 elements, in addition to partial collection of . This is seen through the nature of nickel as a metal, as high throughput nickel mines may run PGE recovery (primarily and ), such as Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in Canada.

or nickel is used in for .

Biological role

Although not recognized until the 1970s, nickel plays important roles in the biology of microorganisms and plants. In fact (an enzyme which assists in the hydrolysis of ) contains nickel. The NiFe- contain nickel in addition to . Such [NiFe]-hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H₂. A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, , is present in the methyl reductase which powers . One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster. Other nickel-containing enzymes include a class of and a .

Toxicity

Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel equivalents per 40-hour work week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be , and various other nickel compounds may be as well. , [Ni(CO)₄], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal as well as the carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air. individuals may show an to nickel affecting their skin, also known as . Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with . Nickel is an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in jewellery intended for . Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is allowed in products which come into contact with human skin is regulated by the . In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 coins far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be due to a reaction.It was voted in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.

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